Christian Anarchism: The New Testament

There is no need for an exhaustive theological exploration of anarchist themes in the New Testament. Unlike the Hebrew Scriptures, there is much written on the subject. Instead, a brief illumination and critique of some key ideas is offered.

Messiah

Mark and Luke's gospels begin with a frenzy of political imagery referencing the Hebrew Scriptures. Descended from David, Jesus is born displaced from his homeland because of an imperial census. Mary's Magnificat comes with Maccabean overtones. Herod slaughters the male children for fear of a political rival. Jesus' family hide in Egypt. Matthew 1: 17 states: Thus there were fourteen generations in all from Abraham to David, fourteen from David to the exile to Babylon, and fourteen from the exile to the Messiah.¹ The message is clear – these events are fundamentally connected. Yoder agrees that Jesus“was a political figure from the beginning”².

The expectation of Jesus as a Davidic messiah could give problems to the Christian Anarchist reading. If this reading wants to reject the monarchy altogether as a failure, the casting of the messiah in this light is unfavourable. However, in any Christian reading it is clear that Jesus surpasses David. He fully inhabits the role that David only grasped at. Perhaps it could be compared to the 'Second Adam' image of 1 Corinthians. Jesus is the 'second David'. Both figures are respected as fathers of the people, yet both institute terrible curses, and are symbolic of rebellious ways. In both cases Jesus reverses their failure, and fulfils their intended roles.

If our expectation is for Jesus to be revealed as a politically authoritative messiah, the story of the temptations surprises us. Jesus is tempted with political authority which, Luke includes, is the realm of Satan.³ The exorcism of a 'Legion' of demons from the Gerasene man is also politically significant.⁴ Richard A. Horsley claims that, above and beyond the legion, a number of military images are used including Jesus 'dismissing' the demons into a 'troop' of swine, ending with the charging into the sea reminiscent of Pharaoh's armies being drowned.⁵

The cleansing of the temple is one of the most significant texts for understanding Jesus as an anarchist messiah. John Dominic Crossan calls it: “A permenantly valid protest demonstration against any capital city’s collusion between conservative religion and imperial violence at any time and in any place.”⁶

Jesus deliberately fulfils prophecy and restores and reclaims a sacred space from the political and economic forces of empire.

Teaching

Jesus’ announcement of the kingdom in Mark 1:15⁷ and his fulfillment of Isaiah’s prophecy in Luke 4 have overtones of Jubilee. The good news that Jesus preaches is not simply about an other-worldly spiritual reality. Jubilee is a political concept- a physical and economic restoration. As Jesus teaches his followers the way to embody Jubilee, it is not an exercise in ethical thought, he expects them to put this new way of life into practice.⁸

The Sermon on the Mount is the key text in all Christian Anarchism. As the source text for Christian pacifism, it has received a lot of attention. Gandhi said of it:‘Everyone in the world knows that Jesus and His teaching is non-violent, except Christians’”⁹. The standard interpretation of Matthew 5:38-42 for Christian Anarchist thinkers is Walter Wink's 'third way': To ‘turn the other cheek’ is to force your oppressor to strike you as they would an equal, rather than with the back of the hand. To ‘give your undergarment also’ is to draw attention to the injustice of mistreating debtors. To go the extra mile is to seemingly submit to the request of occupation troops but to continue further than the legal limit and risk their court-martial.¹⁰ This 'creative resistance' informs non-violent methods among activist groups like the Catholic Worker movement and Ploughshares.

Crucifixion

The political imagery of the gospels increases as they progress to the crucifixion narratives. The triumphal entry is a many-layered satire. It recalls the triumphal entry of Judas Maccabeus, and fulfils the prophecy of Zechariah which, in turn, parodied the triumph of Alexander of Macedon¹¹. Thomas Schmidt’s Jesus’ Triumphal March to Crucifixion: The Sacred Way as Roman Procession¹² presents Mark’s passion narrative as a parallel to Caesar’s coronation¹³.

The cross itself is seen as the ultimate act of political rebellion – a radical submission to the worst the empire can offer.¹⁴ Nigel Goring Wright explains: “The cross was not an instrument of propitiation but a political alternative to both insurrection and quietism.”¹⁵ In his Resurrection, Christ overcomes the old order and begins the restoration of creation.

Revelation

Revelation is the most openly anarchist book in the bible. Following the imagery of Daniel's apocalypse, political powers are represented as beasts, powerful, self-aggrandising, deceiving all the world with their propaganda. The whore – Babylon, the oppressive empire of humanity is juxtaposed with the bride – free, redeemed, ready to be made one with Christ. It is Babel and Canaan, Egypt and Sinai, Babylon and Jerusalem, separation and atonement, empire and God.

In the vision of the new heaven and new earth, John draws together the threads of the Hebrew scripture. It represents creation made perfect. Even Jerusalem, the failed human experiment, is there – God has perfected human effort and it is included in the new creation, with some makor updates. Firstly, the temple is absent - the symbol of centralised political power. God dwells among the people as he did in Eden, in the tabernacle, and in the incarnation imagery of the first chapter John's gospel. Secondly, there has been what Ched Myers calls “ a radical 'greening' of the city: “Gates always open and river running down Main Street on whose banks grow Eden’s Trees of Life.”¹⁶

The final chapter heralds the arrival of God's chosen - David's heir, the true king. Like Egypt and like Babylon, the book ends with both composer and hearers yearning for release from the oppression of an empire and the beginning of the rule of God.

One Story

The story of scripture is the constant cycle of God freeing humankind from the political and spiritual powers that they subject themselves to. It is the story of the failure of global systems, rulers and governments - a continual liberation from all kinds of oppression. We are constantly reminded that humankind are intended to be free of all rulers – to be in relationship with God, walking together in the garden.

1(NIV)

2Nigel Goring Wright. Disavowing Constantine. Cumbria, UK: Paternoster Press, 2000. pg. 82

3Luke 4:5

4Matthew 8, Mark 5, Luke8.

5Horsley, Richard A. Jesus and Empire: The Kingdom of God and the New World Disorder. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003. Pg. 100

6John Dominic Crossan. God and Empire: Jesus against Rome, Then and Now. New York: Harper Collins, 2007. pg. 132.

7“The message of the New Testament has been summarised in Mark 1:15” George W. Forell. Christian Social Teachings. Minneapolis: Ausburg Publishing House, 1966. pg 13.

8Matthew 7:24-28

9Wink, Walter. “The Third Way”. Chicago Sunday Evening Club. http://www.csec.org/csec/sermon/Wink_3707.htm (accessed 9/4/10).

10 Walter Wink The Powers That Be. Cited in Shane Claiborne and Chris Haw. Jesus for President: Politics for Ordinary Radicals. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2008. pg. 92.

11John Dominic Crossan. God and Empire: Jesus against Rome, Then and Now. New York: Harper Collins, 2007. pg. 132.

12Cited in Shane Claiborne and Chris Haw. Jesus for President: Politics for Ordinary Radicals. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2008. pg 126.

13Claiborne and Haw summarise 8 points of parallel: Soldiers muster; Crown, scepter and robe; Annunciation; Procession; The Hill; The offer of wine; Colleagues to the left and right; sign of divine approval.

14Claiborne and Chris Haw. Jesus for President: Politics for Ordinary Radicals. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2008. pg 137

15Nigel Goring Wright. Disavowing Constantine. Cumbria, UK: Paternoster Press, 2000. pg. 82

16Ched Myers. “Anarcho-primitivism and the Bible”. Originally published in the Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature. Continuum, 2005.
http://www.chedmyers.org/system/files/The%20Fall%20-%20Anarcho%20Primitivism%20%2526%20the%20Bible.pdf
(accessed 11/09/12)

Christian Anarchism: Anti-Empire Voices

The Prophets: Anti-Empire Voices

Ellul describes the role of the biblical prophet as “a politically very odd phenomenon” and “a counterforce”. While the kings dabble in militarism and empire-building, the voice of God speaks through the prophets, declaring God's anger at injustice and calling the people back to the deuteronomic way of life.

The prophets have a slightly higher profile in Christian Anarchist theology, perhaps because they are more clearly opposed to the rulers and systems of the time. The Ploughshares movement are Christian Anarchist activists who perform prophetic action in the vein of Ezekiel and others.¹ Ploughshares protests usually involve breaking and entering a military base, hammering on, and pouring blood over, weapons or weapon carriers. Their name is taken from the prophecy of Isaiah 2:4 and Micah 4:3 to “Beat their swords into ploughshares and their spears into pruning hooks”.

There is scope to develop a theology of anarchy from Isaiah, as evidenced by Walter Brueggemann's sermon to Mars Hill Bible Church, Michigan in 2008 entitled “Isaiah and the Mission of the Church.”² Brueggemann connects the political situation in the USA with both the “failed urban economy”³ of Jerusalem and the city of Babylon. “Chapter 46 says take on the power of the Empire. Challenge the gods of military consumerism. Do not trust them, do not serve them, do not obey them. Be a Jew. Be a person of faith.”⁴ He also connects chapter 52 verse 11's “depart” with the 'calling out' theme that resonates from Genesis to Revelation,⁵ stating: “Depart. Depart emotionally, depart psychologically, depart liturgically, depart economically. Organise your life around your faith and not according to the mantras of military consumerism.”⁶ This attitude of resistance, the call to leave systems of oppression and the desire to create a new, free society resonate strongly within anarchism.

The apocalypse of Daniel, like John's Revelation, represents imperial systems as beasts. Claiborne and Haw state: “The images of the beasts remind us that these creatures have mutated far from what God intended... systems of imperial power that had become so corrupt... they no longer reflected God's image or goodness.”⁷ In the face of these unnatural monsters, salvation comes in the form of 'one like a son of man'⁸ -human, adama⁹, of the earth¹⁰. This pretype of Christ appears juxtaposed to the empires of the world and glorified in the presence of God. For a captive people sitting out the rise and fall of evil power structures around them there is the hope of one who will come who is not of the bestial empires, but who represents reconnection with the earth and with God.

The story of the Hebrew Scriptures is a cycle of people being called out and set free from oppressive empires. In the wilderness, away from the centres of power, people meet with God and are given a mandate to live differently- to live free. This alternative lifestyle is the restoration of creation: After the fall comes the hope of a return to Eden; after Babylon comes the yearning to return home. For Christian Anarchists this is a significant point. In light of this reading of the Hebrew Scriptures anarchism is not a radical reinterpretation of the old law by Jesus. Rather, anarchism is the very heart of God, and the perfect state of a fully realised human society.

The Hebrew Scriptures can also be read as protest works. Whether in creation myth, law code or court history, the Hebrew Scriptures subvert the normative writing conventions to present works which take an oppositional approach to political power. Not only a work of protest, the Hebrew Scriptures also present a fully developed constitution for a ruler-less society, with a level of freedom and bias to the oppressed that even the most liberal administration today could aspire to.

The Hebrew Scriptures end with a yearning for political liberation and a chance to become the unique people of God once more.

1Ezekiel, Jeremiah, Isaiah 20:1-6, 2 Kings 13:15-19, 1 Kings 11:30-40

2Walter Brueggemann. “Isaiah and the Mission of the Church.” (Sermon delivered at Mars Hill Bible Church, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 20/07/2008). Mp3 audio file from http://marshill.org/teaching/ (accessed 22/9/08)

3Walter Brueggemann. “Isaiah and the Mission of the Church.” (Sermon delivered at Mars Hill Bible Church, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 20/07/2008). Mp3 audio file from http://marshill.org/teaching/ (accessed 22/9/08) 2 minutes 50 seconds

4Walter Brueggemann. “Isaiah and the Mission of the Church.” (Sermon delivered at Mars Hill Bible Church, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 20/07/2008). Mp3 audio file from http://marshill.org/teaching/ (accessed 22/9/08) 9 minutes 30 seconds

5Genesis 12:1 to Revelation 18:4

6Walter Brueggemann. “Isaiah and the Mission of the Church.” (Sermon delivered at Mars Hill Bible Church, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 20/07/2008). Mp3 audio file from http://marshill.org/teaching/ (accessed 22/9/08) 13 minutes 17 seconds

7Shane Claiborne and Chris Haw. Jesus for President: Politics for Ordinary Radicals.

Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2008. Pg. 43

8Daniel 7:13 (NIV)

9אדם

10אדמה

Christian Anarchism: God vs The King

Joshua to Chronicles: God versus the King

In most Christian communities the view of the biblical Kingship is generally positive. Fuelled by a Sunday School image of the boy-king David, the monarchy is seen as God-ordained, God-approved and God-supported; even if there were a few bad examples like Ahab. In reality, out of the forty-two kings all but eight¹ are called 'evil'. Scripture voices a breadth of positive and negative views about the institution of monarchy, representing the varied opinions of the people at different places and different times. However, the overall impression we are left with is overwhelmingly negative. Whenever God's own opinion about kingship is made known through the prophets it is always impugning. An understanding of the biblical concept of kingship is vital to any true biblical theology of anarchism.

The debate about kingship begins towards the end of the book of Judges with the phrase: “In those days there was no king in Israel, but every man did that which was right in his own eyes.”² Versions of this refrain appear four times in the final chapters of Judges as a segue into the books of Samuel. The phrase is added to the end of stories of particularly violent behaviour which would seem to make it a statement in favour of the impending kingship- an indictment of lawlessness amongst the people and a strong case showing the need for a ruler. It would be a mistake, however, to conclude that this phrase is the work of a pro-monarchic redactor.

Firstly, within the framework of earlier writings, the people do have a king, but they have turned away from God's kingship repeatedly. In Judges 8 the people beg their saviour Gideon to become king, but Gideon's theology of kingship is clear: “I will not rule over you, nor will my son rule over you. The Lord will rule over you.”³ In this context, the refrain “there was no king” is not a statement in favour of future kingship, but rather a reproof against the people's abandonment of God's rule.⁴

Secondly, in the context of later writings, the kings would themselves continue to disobey God and do 'what was right in their own eyes'. Even if we assume an exilic authorship for this section of Judges, then the writer would have been painfully aware of the failure of the monarchy. The story of the Judges period represents the complete failure of the people to fulfil the utopian vision of Israel, but it was likely considered preferable to the times of the monarchy. Though it is possible to read the 'no king' statement as deliberately ambiguous, it is emphatically not an argument in favour of rulers.

It could be argued that the judges themselves were rulers, but Jacques Ellul outlines an anarchist view of the judges as a kind of 'emergency powers act':

“When the situation became disastrous... God then chose a man or woman who had no specific authority but whom he inspired to win a war or lead the people back to reverence for God, that it, to resolve the crisis. Apparently, when the 'judges' had played their part they effaced themselves and rejoined the people... They had no permanent power. God alone could be considered the supreme authority.”⁵

Though each tribe, clan and family had structure and leadership, though conflict turned the people to violence, the call is not to institute a monarchy, but to return to the rule of God. For the Christian Anarchists this should be hugely significant. It runs counter to most understandings of the biblical Israel that God imagined his people existing in a community without a ruler. For the whole people of God today expressing themselves as divinely inspired communities, for those who see themselves as a new Israel, for nations who call themselves 'Christian', it is a largely forgotten principle. God's plan has an anarchist leaning – a people with guiding moral principles and no need for rulers.

When the monarchy is eventually instituted it is with disappointment and pain on the part of God. Fearing a take-over by the selfish and unjust sons of the final judge and prophet Samuel, the elders of Israel demand Samuel appoint a king “such as all the other nations have.”⁶ God speaks to Samuel: “It is not you they have rejected as their king, but me. As they have done from the day I brought them up out of Egypt, forsaking me and serving other Gods.”⁷ Since the very beginning of God's salvation plan for Israel they have turned away from his model of living, preferring the customs and even the gods of surrounding nations. Requesting a king is a new low. It represented the people giving up their unique, ruler-less, identity in order to be like everyone else.

Samuel warns the people that a king will introduce policies of taxation and subscription. He will take a tenth of all produce- all that had been promised to God as offerings for redistribution among the priesthood, foreigners, widows and orphans.⁸ The people “refused to listen” and demanded again that Samuel make them like other nations with a king to lead and fight battles. God tells Samuel to 'accede' to their wishes.⁹ Here is the extent to which God rejects absolute rulers: He even limits his own rule. Though it is blasphemous, treasonous and ultimately disastrous, God allows the people to choose.

Saul's Kinghip is marked by disobedience and ends when Saul refuses to wage war according to the principle of herem¹⁰, taking plunder from the Amalekite king. “The LORD was grieved that he had made Saul king over Israel.”¹¹ The first kingship was a failure.

At its inception, David's kingship seems markedly different from Saul's. In the account of his annointing in the book of Samuel, David seems much more passive than Saul, with God taking the lead. From the Goliath story we see David's fundamental understanding that rule and victory belong not to the king, but to God.¹² During his early kingship he seems to understand himself as a regent under God. This apparent contrast to Saul caused Jaques Ellul to call David an 'exception' to the pattern of kingship, but this does not give the full picture.¹³ Like Saul, David leans gradually away from God's rule and towards behaviour similar to other ancient near-eastern kings, culminating in adultery with Bathsheba and the murder of Uriah. God speaks through Nathan to remind David of his position: It was never David's rule or David's victory that won him fame and favour- it was God's rule and God's victory acting through his annointed leader.¹⁴ This 'fall from grace' leads Vernard Eller to claim David as “one of our best arguments for anarchy.”¹⁵ Even David with his good intentions, nuanced understanding of kingship under God and genuine heart of worship is ultimately corrupted by the power he wields.

The book of Samuel ends with David fulfilling the dire warnings about monarchy from the early chapters. David takes a census of all the young men fit for fighting. His commander, Joab recognizes the sinfulness of such an action: “Why does my lord the king want to do such a thing?”¹⁶ Chronicles takes the view that David must have been inspired by Satan to do something as evil as take a census.¹⁷ It is not immediately obvious why taking a census should be considered so wicked without referring back to 1 Samuel 8.¹⁸ In ordering a military census David is taking Israel another step away from God's vision and towards 'the other nations'. He is centralising military power under his authority. He is causing Israel to trust in their own military strength, rather than in God. Commentator A.A. Anderson writes: “The king and the people should not rely on their own strength but they should depend on Yahweh (cf. 1 Samuel 14:6; Isaiah 31:1). Yahweh can deliver his people and give them victory “by many or by few” (1 Samuel 14:6).”¹⁹

Israel's journey away from God's plan and towards its own dream of becoming a centralised military empire 'like the other nations' is finally fulfilled under David's son Solomon. The tension of pro and anti monarchy voices in the narrative is at its height when dealing with Solomon. Though the original tone is lost to us, we must assume something between carefully studied ambiguity and deliberate irony in the accounts of Solomon's legendary greatness. In the Kings account of the building of the temple we find the phrase: “Here is the account of the forced labour King Solomon conscripted to build the Lord's temple...”²⁰ A vast and powerful empire built by forced labour? For a readership in exile in Babylon this would be an uncomfortable image²¹. The shadow of Egypt falls over Jerusalem. Those waiting for a second exodus would have told how God had rescued his people from forced labour - led them out pursued by Pharaoh's horses and chariots. Both accounts of Solomon's splendour (1 Kings 10 and 2 Chronicles 9) list Solomon's riches, trading prowess and military equipment, ending pointedly with horses and chariots -specifically, horses and chariots purchased from Egypt.

Deuteronomy had prophesied the Israelite kingship and had specifically instructed: “The king, moreover, must not acquire great numbers of horses for himself or make the people return to Egypt to get more of them, for the LORD has told you, “You are not to go back that way again.””²² Solomon had returned Israel to the ways of Egypt. For those who yearned to return to the 'glory days' of Jerusalem there is a sharp reminder - The time that Israel was at the height of its power was also the time that it was furthest from God's vision. By asking for a king, by endeavouring to be 'like other nations', Israel had made themselves into another Egypt.

In order to spread his diplomatic power, Solomon takes many foreign wives ('seven hundred') which inevitably leads to worshipping foreign gods. From a political standpoint this makes perfect sense - integrating other cultures can only strengthen Israel's position as a cosmopolitan power. But Israel is not a nation like all the others. Solomon “did evil in the eyes of the LORD.”²³ The story of Solomon ends with strife - enemies raised up against him, the inevitable division of the kingdom, rebellion and uprising among the people - it is a strife that would continue for another three-hundred-and-forty-four years until the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians and the final end of the failed kingship.

For Christian Anarchism this account of the monarchy offers five key points: Firstly, it dispenses with the view that political power, rulers and governments are advocated by God. To the contrary, the work of centralised government- taxation, subscription, military power, census etc. are directly forbidden by God. Ellul concludes that: “Political power rests on distrust … of God”²⁴

Secondly, God allows the people to choose. God is not a dictator and does not enforce his rule, even choosing and blessing the king. The third point is that God's apparent 'blessing' does not constitute an endorsement of an action or system. God chose to bless the kingship, and to dwell in the temple, even though they went against his plan. This means that arguments about Christians in government cannot rest on the blessing of God. “Look at all the good that was done” or “God really blessed that work” are not synonymous with God's approval of a system. It is clear that, although God chose, annointed and blessed the kings, he despaired of the system of kingship throughout.

The fourth point is the danger of corruption. Even David with his pure heart and Solomon with his divine gift of wisdom are easily corrupted by power, going against God and acting like other rulers, leading the nation in the same direction. For Christians in government this is a dire warning. Some Christian communities pray that God's people would be brought into political office, hoping that they would do justice and redeem the system of government. If the biblical kingship is our example, this seems impossible. For individual Christian communities, and for Christians in government, the temptation to be 'like other nations' is always too great. Finally, there is only room for one ruler, and that is God. God sees the acknowledging of earthly rulers as rejection.²⁵

1Asa, Jehoshaphat, Joash, Amaziah, Uzziah, Jotham, Hezekiah, Josiah.

2Judges 17:6 (KJV). Also, Judges 18:1, Judges 19:1, Judges 21:25.

3Judges 8:23 (NIV)

4See also the Parable of Jotham. Judges 8:7-20. it should be noted that, while YHWH's kingship is a central theme, this should properly be viewed as an indictment of Abimelech specifically, rather than Kingship generally.

5Jacques Ellul. Anarchy and Christianity. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988. Pg 46-47

61 Samuel 8:5

71 Samuel 8:7-8 NIV

8Deuteronomy 26:12

9Ralph W. Klein's translation of 1 Samuel 8:22. Word Biblical Commentary: 1 Samuel. Nelson Reference & Electronic, 1983. Pg 73

101 Samuel 15:3 c. Leviticus 27:28

111 Samuel 15: 35

121 Samuel 17: 37, 45-47

13Jacques Ellul. Anarchy and Christianity. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988. Pg. 49

142 Samuel 12:7-9

15Vernard Eller. Christian Anarchy: Jesus' Primacy Over the Powers. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1987. Pg. 9

162 Samuel 24:3 (NIV)

171 Chronicles 21:1

18Exodus 30:12 supposes that a census will be taken, and the book of Numbers begins with maybe the most famous recorded census. (1:1-4 and 19)

19A.A. Anderson. Word Biblical Commentary: 2 Samuel. Dallas, Texas: Word Books, 1989.Pg. 284

201 Kings 9:15 (NIV) See also, 2 Chronicles 8:8

21It should also be noted that both Kings and chronicles record that the amount of tax Solomon gathered was six-hundred-and-sixty-six shekels (1 Kings 10:14 and 2 Chronicles 9:13). Whether this number is adopted in John's revelation as a reference to Solomon's power and imminent apostasy, or whether it has an older origin in Hebrew numerology, scholarship is agreed that six-six-six represents incompleteness, imperfection and the connection between man and beast.

22Deuteronomy 17:16 (NIV)

231 Kings 11:6

24Jaques Ellul, cited in Alexandre Christoyannopoulos. Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel (Abridged Edition). Exeter: Imprint Academic, 2011. Pg. 70

251 Samuel 8:7

Christian Anarchism: God's Politics

Leviticus to Deuteronomy: God's Politics

The books of the law are neglected, not just in Christian Anarchist hermeneutics, but in many readings of the Bible. Their significance for developing a truly biblical politics cannot be overestimated. Indeed, they form the core of the narrative: Genesis and Exodus have set up the story – the calling out from the systems of the world to embody an alternative; The subsequent books will tell of Israel's success or failure in living out this alternative; The books of the law themselves, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy, actually reveal in detail what this alternative civilisation will look like.

The levitical purity code shows that maintaining cultural uniqueness is central to this new society. They are not to follow the customs of other nations.¹ From not following the religious practices of head-shaving² to not wearing clothes made of two materials,³ Israel are to be set apart.

The laws of Leviticus and Deuteronomy outline a socio-economic model like no other⁴. It has worker safeguards,⁵ built-in strategies to end wage slavery⁶, interest-free loans⁷, rehabilitation for criminals⁸ and special regard for widows, orphans and foreigners.⁹ None of these practices required a bureaucracy. It is a welfare state, without the state. The principle of gleaning¹⁰ allowed those who found themselves without work, or who had suffered a bad harvest, to gather from around the edge of other's fields. This is not a charitable hand-out, but allowed people to work to support themselves. All members of the society were guaranteed a day of rest from work every seven days. The land itself was allowed a year of rest in every seven – the year of Jubilee, where the people would not sow or reap, but eat whatever the land produced. After seven sets of seven years came the Jubilee of Jubilees where land was redistributed and debts cancelled. After a year of celebration, everyone began again as equals. It is a unique economic system, and would prevent both extremes of poverty and extremes of wealth. Those who had sold themselves into slavery were set free. Anyone who sought to gain financial power would know that that power would not last. Claiborne and Haw call the Jubilee of Jubilees: “A regularly scheduled revolution.”¹¹

The structure of Deuteronomy itself is coloured by anarchism. Comparing Deuteronomy with other similar covenant documents reveals some interesting exceptions¹². While it is usual to call on the gods as witnesses, this does not happen for monotheistic Israel. No Suzerain is mentioned¹³ – no ruler. God himself is the only ruler. Jacques Ellul remarks on this feature: “There were no tribal princes... The God of Israel declared that he and he alone would be Israel's head. Yet this was not a theocracy, for God had no representative on earth and tribal assemblies made the decisions.”¹⁴

The books of the law outline a unique model for society¹⁵. Liberal and humanitarian laws are held in place by strong social cohesion¹⁶. There is no ruler and no government. “Since it left out prisons, taxes, and – crucially – executive and legislative bodies, this Mosaic political system was basically a form of anarchy.”¹⁷

1Deuteronomy 18:9

2Leviticus 19:27, Leviticus 21:5, Deuteronomy 14:1.

3Leviticus 19:19, Deuteronomy 22:11.

4S.D. McBride was the first to suggest that the book of Deuteronomy could be viewed as a constitution. Though he takes his inspiration from Josephus. McConville, J.G. God and Earthly Power. London: T&T Clark, 2008. Pg. 85-88

5Such as the Sabbath laws and slavery laws.

6Leviticus 25:39-41, Deuteronomy 15:12, Exodus 21:2

7Exodus 22: 25-27, Leviticus 25:35-37, Deuteronomy 23:20-21

8Leviticus 6:1-6

9Deuteronomy 23:15-16, Deuteronomy 10:18, Exodus 22:22, Deuteronomy 27:19

10Leviticus 19:9, Leviticus 23:22, Deuteronomy 24:19

11Shane Claiborne and Chris Haw. Jesus for President: Politics for Ordinary Radicals.

Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2008. Pg. 34

12Comparing Deuteronomy with ancient near east suzerain vassal treaties was brought to the fore by von Rad and developed by Denis J. McCarthy's Treaty and Covenant. (Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1963) and others. Deuteronomy 1-4 provides a preamble and historical background in an account of the deeds of Yahweh; chapters 5-26 outline the laws of the covenant, both apodictic and casuistic, and chapters 27-30 list blessings and curses.

13There is debate as to whether Deuteronomy’s treaty structure is more similar to Hittite Vassal Treaties of the Mosaic era, or to the “Assyrian state treaties of Esarhaddon” of the 7^thC BCE.

14Jacques Ellul. Anarchy and Christianity. Translated by Geoffrey W. Bromiley. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1988. Pg 46.

15The book of Ruth is a perfect narrative example of these laws working to the benefit of the needy.

16Justice is not meted out by any appointed force, but by the whole community in the form of public stonings (Leviticus 24:16). Significantly, the system cannot be said to be without the use of coercive violence.

17Christoyannopoulos, Alexandre. Christian Anarchism: A Political Commentary on the Gospel (Abridged Edition). Exeter: Imprint Academic, 2011. Pg. 69. Citing Stephen W Carson.